Himalayan Crocodile Salamander: An Enigmatic Newt from the Mountains

Some school memories remain etched in our minds forever. One such recollection is from my high school biology lectures on amphibians. Amphibians are technically a Class of animals with three Orders: anurans (frogs and toads), Urodela (salamanders), and Gymnophiona (caecilians). While frogs and toads are well-known representatives of this group, learning that “lizards” were mistakenly classified as amphibians came as a surprise to me. Salamanders, though often confused with lizards, belong to the amphibian family. They possess elongated bodies, blunt snouts, short limbs positioned at right angles, and a tail, which leads to their resemblance to lizards. I recall during our BSc and MSc practical examinations, rows of unlabelled animal specimens were displayed for identification. A formalin-preserved salamander in a jar would often puzzle students who had not paid attention in class, leading them to misidentify it as a lizard —earning them a zero.

Salamanders have long intrigued scientists. Their characteristics are fascinating. These amphibians are primarily found in or near water. Like other amphibians, their thin, water-permeable skin functions as a respiratory surface. It is also lined with mucous-secreting glands that keep it moist and aid in respiration and temperature regulation. Generally, newts are salamanders that have a semi-aquatic adult life, whereas other salamander subfamilies are either largely aquatic or terrestrial. All newts are salamanders, but not all salamanders are newts.

There are approximately 750 species of salamanders worldwide, predominantly found in the northern hemisphere, specifically in North America, Europe, and Asia. Interestingly, about one-third of all known species inhabit North America, with the highest concentration in the Appalachian Mountains, a range that stretches from Newfoundland in Canada to central Alabama in the United States.

The taxonomy of salamanders is perplexing. Our textbooks taught us that India hosts a single species — the Himalayan salamander (Tylototriton verrucosus). However, with new molecular data and morphological analysis, this has now been refuted. It turns out that Tylototriton verrucosus is a species from Myanmar and Yunnan, China, and does not exist in India. In fact, it is now being referred to as the Yunnan newt. Instead, India harbours two different and distinct species of salamander, both of which are newts. The first is Tylototriton himalayanus, which is best referred to as the Himalayan crocodile salamander or Himalayan newt. This newt is found in eastern Nepal, the Darjeeling Himalayas, and western Bhutan, and was scientifically described as a (new) different species in 2015. Although it is still called the Himalayan salamander in some references, one should draw a clear separation between Tylototriton himalayanus and Tylototriton verrucosus (which is not from the Himalayas). Other terms that Tylototriton himalayanus is referred to include eastern Himalayan crocodile newt, pani kukur (“water dog” in Nepali), and orange-warted salamander.

The second salamander species found in India is the Manipuri newt (Tylototriton zaimeng), also called Zaimeng lake newt or Zaimeng newt. It was scientifically described in 2023 and is known only from a few montane forest habitats in Manipur. Birjit Singh, a friend from Manipur, shared his concerns with me about the Manipur newt’s survival, as its unique habitat faces severe threats from human activities. Its habitat, Zaimeng Lake, at an altitude of approximately 2,210 metres in the Maraobou Range, consists largely of marshy vegetation interspersed with reeds and mosses. Researchers from the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) have documented this species in five ponds across Ukhrul district and one in Senapati district. Currently, very little is known about the Manipuri newt. The Himalayan newt, on the other hand, has been studied more extensively. In Darjeeling and Kalimpong districts, WII scientists confirmed its presence in 49 out of 58 surveyed wetlands. 

During the breeding season (monsoon), males court females through a series of tactile and visual displays, often nudging or circling them in water. After mating, females lay gelatinous clusters of eggs (dozens) on submerged vegetation or stones in slow-moving, forest pools, stagnant puddles, and crop fields. Larvae hatch after about 2-4 weeks and develop in the water until metamorphosis.

Most salamanders and newts are silent. Instead of vocal communication, they generally rely on chemical cues and body movements (such as tail undulations and nudging) during courtship. However, when filmmakers Ajay and Vijay Bedi were editing footage of their film on frogs, they realised they had accidentally recorded the Himalayan crocodile salamander calling out. This has led to further research on the salamander’s mating behaviour and vocalisations.

In Nepal, the Himalayan crocodile salamander is commonly referred to as pani kukur (water dog) due to the sound it makes when it snaps its jaws when disturbed.

Salamanders are slow-moving creatures, particularly on land. To deter predators, some species have specialised toxin-producing skin glands that make them unpalatable or even poisonous. These species exhibit bright colouration as a warning (a biological phenomenon known as aposematism). Another extraordinary ability of salamanders is their capacity to regenerate body parts. If attacked, they can willingly shed a limb or tail and regrow it within weeks or months. Some species can even regenerate critical organs such as the heart, or the jaw and spinal cord. This remarkable regenerative ability makes salamanders valuable subjects in biomimicry research, where scientists study nature-inspired solutions to human challenges. Many universities now have dedicated biomimicry departments where engineers, biologists, medical experts, and physicists collaborate to develop sustainable technology, architecture, medicines, and more by mimicking nature’s efficient designs.

Salamanders are voracious predators, feeding on insects, worms, fish, tadpoles, crabs, and even small mammals. Their diet is largely dictated by their size, which varies dramatically from the tiny 17-mm-long minute salamander of Mexico’s cloud forests to the colossal 1.8-metre-long Chinese giant salamander.

Dr Ritwick Dasgupta, in his study on the Himalayan newt’s diet in Darjeeling, identified a diverse range of prey, including frogs, fish, crustaceans, snails, insects, spiders, and even its own species. Cannibalism is common among certain species, especially when food is scarce, such as in drying waterbodies. However, interestingly, Dr Dasgupta noted that among Himalayan newts, only females exhibited egg cannibalism. Moreover, this behaviour was not necessarily linked to food scarcity, as it was observed even during periods of abundant resources (June–July). The abundance of eggs appeared to trigger this oophagic (egg-eating) behaviour. 

A separate study by D. Seglie and colleagues, published in a Russian journal (then known as T. verrucosus), found that the Himalayan newt thrives in a variety of aquatic habitats — ranging from temporary and permanent ponds to swamps, rain puddles, and artificial fishing ponds. Perhaps the most comprehensive research was led by Dr Kartikeya Vasudevan and Dr Suresh Kumar from WII. Between May and August 2012, their team conducted field surveys across northern West Bengal and northeastern India and developed predictive models of the species’ distribution.

Adult females are slightly larger than males. Females are around 66 mm (136 mm with tail) while males are 63 mm (131 mm with tail). They tend to have a blunt, oval head and flat snout, and two bony ridges on their back with ~16 pairs of knobby dorsal warts. Their tails are compressed and have a fin fold.

Himalayan newts primarily inhabit permanent and seasonal ponds within subtropical hill forests. These habitats are characterised by scattered vegetation, and adults are seen in waterbodies only during their breeding season from late April to early October. For the rest of the year, they remain terrestrial or semi-fossorial, hiding under rocks, logs, and leaf litter while they undergo aestivation or hibernation for four to five months.

In 2013, I visited Namthing Pokhri, a lake in the Darjeeling district, with wildlife photographer Dhritiman Mukherjee to observe the Himalayan newt. We found a few specimens, but what was more interesting to me was seeing this ace photographer lying down in the squelchy, soft mud to photograph them on the edge of a pond. Subsequently, Dhritiman has visited the site many times to photograph these animals with his underwater cameras.

Jorepokhri, a small wildlife sanctuary located 20 km from Darjeeling, was designated a sanctuary for this species in 1985. Unfortunately, over time, the area was repurposed into a picnic spot and the pools surrounded by cemented paths, destroying much of the salamander’s habitat. Today, these rare creatures survive only in a small, relatively undisturbed section of the lake.

Due to the Himalayan newt’s dwindling numbers, the Darjeeling Zoo initiated a conservation breeding programme in the early 1990s. The initial population consisted of 10 individuals sourced from a lake within Margaret’s Hope Tea Estate near Darjeeling. In 1998, four additional newts were introduced. Currently, the facility houses around 50 individuals across various age groups. However, the most effective strategy for preserving this enigmatic species remains the protection of their wetland habitats.

Amphibian biologist, Sarbani Nag, who is also President of the NGO, “SAVE THE FROGS! India”, aptly summarises the situation: “Himalayan crocodile salamanders are ancient survivors and a crucial component of high-altitude wetlands in the Darjeeling Himalayas. As an umbrella species, their conservation supports an entire ecosystem, including the human communities that depend on these wetlands. However, habitat destruction and human activities threaten their existence. Local communities must recognise their significance. Protecting them ensures biodiversity, preserves natural heritage, and secures a sustainable future for all.”